Trenches—long, narrow ditches dug into the ground—formed the front line of battle on the Western Front. Occupied by infantry soldiers, they were designed to protect the men from machine gun fire and artillery bombardment. Trench warfare was not new in 1914: it had been widely practised in other wars of the late 19th and early 20th centuries—and is still seen in wars today. The Western Front trenches first appeared in September 1914 after the German advance through northern France was halted by British and French forces. Both sides dug in to take cover and hold their ground. At first, the trenches were simple ditches, but they soon evolved into complex networks forming a continuous line from the North Sea to Switzerland. Over the next four years, each side launched offensives against the enemy’s trench lines—attacks that would fail but which would result in terrible casualties.
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Trench systems

A typical World War I trench system consisted of two or three lines of trenches connected by communication trenches. The front line, or main fire trench, faced towards enemy lines. Every few metres a great mound of earth and sandbags, called a traverse, created a U-shaped bend in the trench. Traverses were built to prevent enemy intruders from being able to fire down the length of a trench. They also helped to contain any damage caused by an exploding shell to just that stretch.

Extending out from the front line some distance into No Man's Land (the area of land between opposing trenches) were dead-end trenches called saps. They acted as temporary listening posts or as "jumping off" positions for a surprise attack.

Behind the fire trench was another trench, called the support line. Here, dugouts were built into the trench walls, providing shelter for three or four men or to serve as a telephone position for a signaller. A piece of boarding was placed over it to provide a makeshift roof with earth piled on top of it. A blanket might be draped across the entrance. Both fire and support trenches were linked to areas behind the lines by communication trenches. It was along these that all equipment and supplies from behind the lines were ferried.

​​​​​​​Over the course of the war, several lines of reserve trenches were created, layered back over several kilometres. Protected by belts of barbed wire tens of metres deep placed in front of them, and containing concrete shelters sometimes below ground level, the trench positions served as formidable defences, almost impossible for opposing armies to break through.

The type of trench varied according to local conditions. The area near River Somme was chalky and easily dug, but the trench sides tended to crumble after rain, so would need to be built up (revetted) with wooden posts or sandbags. At Ypres in Belgium on the other hand, the ground was boggy, so trenches could not be dug in the ground. Instead, they were built up, using sandbags and wood (known as breastworks). Sandbags were about 18 inches (45 centimetres) long and about a foot (30 centimetres) wide. They were filled with ordinary soil rather than sand, tied and placed one on top of the other to make a wall.
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The banked earth forming the lip of the trench facing the enemy was called the parapet. The fire step beneath it was a place for soldiers to stand and fire either through loopholes or by using periscope rifles. The embanked rear lip of the trench was called the parados, which protected the soldiers' backs from shells exploding behind the trench. Where possible, the trench floor was covered by duckboards, which consisted of a number of wooden slats joined together, and which doubled as scaling ladders when the order came to go "over the top" (climb out of the trench).

With so many men squeezed into a tight space and unable to wash or change for days or weeks at a time, the conditions presented a severe risk to health. Vermin, including rats and lice, were everywhere, helping to spread diseases. Infectious diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid fever spread rapidly. Trench mouth, a type of gum infection, thought to be caused by the stress of non-stop bombardment, was also common.
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The trenches were open to the weather, which could be merciless (the winter of 1916–17 in Flanders was the coldest in living memory). They flooded, sometimes to waist height, whenever it rained. Overflowing latrines (toilets)—holes in the ground with planks built over them for the men to sit on—made matters worse. The men suffered from exposure, frostbite and trench foot, a wasting disease of the flesh caused by the foot being wet and cold, sometimes requiring amputation.

​​​​​​​Particularly during major assaults such as the battles of the Somme and Passchendaele, soldiers witnessed horrific scenes, in which death—from gas or mortar attacks, or in hand-to-hand combat—was commonplace. Men on leave often found it difficult to talk to their family and friends about what they had seen. It is hard to imagine what the lasting effect upon their mental health was like.
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Life in the trenches was not always a catalogue of misery and hardship, however. Britain was not far from the Western Front, and the men were able to receive regular food and clothing parcels from their families. Trench newspapers and football matches provided welcome relief from the conflict. Humour and song helped create a sense of identity with their comrades at arms. 

A man and his section would generally spend four days in the front line, then four days in close reserve (ready to reinforce the front line at short notice) and four days at rest some distance behind the front, perhaps in a nearby village. This pattern varied according to the conditions or the availability of reserve troops.

Other than when a battle was under way, trench life was mostly dull. The main enemies were the weather and boredom. But any loss of concentration—leaving oneself exposed to fire from an enemy sniper (someone who could shoot accurately from long range)—might prove deadly. Men in the front line had to keep their bayonets fixed during hours of darkness or whenever there was an alert of enemy activity.
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At dawn, half an hour before daylight, the whole line was ordered to "Stand To". This meant manning the trench in preparation for an enemy attack. An hour later came the order to stand down. Breakfast—usually bacon and tea—followed, and the rest of the morning was spent tidying or repairing the trench, refilling sandbags and cleaning weapons. Sleep and downtime, spent writing letters or playing cards for example, filled the afternoons, with another stand-to an hour before dusk. Work—patrolling, digging, putting up barbed wire, bringing in rations and other supplies—continued all night under cover of darkness with some time for rest until the morning stand-to.

Equipment

Soldiers' equipment included a gas mask, rifle and ammunition, an entrenching tool and "webbing equipment" containing personal items like shaving kits and water bottles. Before steel helmets became standard issue in 1916, soldiers wore soft cloth caps. These gave no protection against bullets or shells. The steel helmet was designed to provide some protection from shrapnel falling from above. Although not impenetrable, the helmets reduced head injuries by 75%.

Before World War I, European armies wore brightly coloured uniforms. The improved accuracy of rifles and artillery and the use of aerial reconnaissance (spotting troop positions) forced armies to make their troops less visible. Soldiers now wore much less conspicuous khaki (British), grey (German) or "horizon blue" (French) uniforms.

​​​​​​​Poison gas was first used on a major scale by the Germans in 1915 to try and break the deadlock on the Western Front. Early gas masks were simply cotton pads soaked in chemicals. These were later replaced by helmets infused with chemicals to counter the phosgene gas. They were fitted with glass eyepieces and a rubber tube through which a soldier could breathe. This was eventually upgraded once more to the more effective Small Box Respirator mask.

Supplies

Forces on the Western Front required a vast amount of ammunition, food and equipment. By November 1918, the British Army needed a monthly issue of 67 million pounds (lbs) of meat, 90 million pounds of bread, 32 million pounds of forage (feed for horses) and 13 million gallons of petrol. The Army Service Corps, assisted by thousands of Chinese, African and Arab labourers, was responsible for moving this material from the Channel ports to base depots. From there, it was moved by train to a supply depot near the front. Horse-drawn carts or motor vehicles carried it to the quartermaster staff of front line units.

Many thousands of horses were killed or wounded, while others died of fatigue and disease. The use of gas, artillery, mines, machine guns and tanks made the front a terrifying place for the animals. Horses frequently got caught up in barbed wire and suffered severe injuries as they struggled to escape.

Over the top

For much of the war, forces of both sides mounted offensives from the trenches. When an attack was ordered, infantry soldiers climbed over the parapets of their trenches using duckboards as makeshift scaling ladders. This was known as going "over the top". With bayonets fixed to their rifles, they marched towards the enemy across No Man’s Land (the ground lying between opposing trenches, ranging between a few tens of metres to several hundred metres wide) spread out in a straight line. They invariably came under a barrage of fire from enemy machine guns. This approach was rarely effective, and often led to mass casualties, such as at the Battle of the Somme.

In the cold, muddy trenches on some parts of the Western Front a remarkable event took place on Christmas Eve 1914. It was one of the strangest moments of World War I, or of any war in history. Soldiers from both sides—who had been shooting at each other only days before—put down their weapons and walked across No Man's Land to greet one another and exchange gifts. This incredible event, the Christmas Truce, involved some 100,000 men along a number of stretches of the Western Front. We know about it from eyewitness accounts, photos and the descriptions appearing in numerous diaries and letters written by the soldiers from both sides who were there.
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One British soldier recalls hearing carols being sung in the Germans trenches—only a few tens of metres away—on Christmas Eve. Some of the British soldiers began to sing back. The next morning a German soldier, speaking in English, shouted out: “Come over here!” One of the British sergeants answered: “You come half-way. I come half-way.” German and British soldiers then began to climb out of their trenches. Mingling together in No Man's Land, the men shook hands, chatted, sang together and shared jokes. The Germans gave sausages to the British, while the British gave the Germans chocolates.
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In other accounts, the Germans reportedly held up signs reading “You no shoot, we no shoot” before the soldiers from both sides climbed out of their trenches. Troops exchanged gifts of cigarettes, alcohol, buttons and hats. Agreement was quickly made between the two sides that they should not fire at each other until after midnight. In some places, the truce continued on through Boxing Day, even until New Year's Day.

One German infantryman described how a British soldier set up a makeshift barbers, charging Germans a few cigarettes each for a haircut. The Christmas Truce also allowed both sides to finally bury their dead comrades whose bodies had lain for weeks in No Man’s Land.
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There are even accounts of football "matches" taking place. As one British soldier named Ernie Williams later recalled: "The ball appeared from somewhere, I don't know where ... They made up some goals and one fellow went in goal and then it was just a general kick-about. I should think there were about a couple of hundred taking part.” Most games were probably played by men of the same nationality, but in at least three or four places they involved troops from the opposing armies.
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The truce happened spontaneously: it was agreed between the rank and file soldiers (and officers) of both armies. The commanders of the armies were not asked for their permission—and some were said to be horrified. The commander of the British Second Corps, General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien told Divisional Commanders to prohibit any friendly communication with the enemy in future.

One British soldier remembered a German soldier saying to him: “Today we have peace. Tomorrow you fight for your country. I fight for mine. Good luck!” The soldiers on both sides returned to life in the trenches. A Christmas Truce never happened again.

World War I was the first major conflict in which more people died in combat than from disease. This is partly because so many soldiers were slaughtered in the bloodiest of conflicts. But it is also due to the vastly improved medical support available and advances in the prevention and treatment of disease. Vaccines, for example, were first used on a major scale during the war and most British servicemen sent abroad were vaccinated against typhoid—a major killer in past conflicts. Blood transfusions could now be given to soldiers close to the field of battle, saving many lives.
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The quicker a casualty received first aid, the better his chances of survival. The First Field Dressing pack contained two field dressings and helped to stem blood loss before medical personnel arrived. Minor injuries could become fatal if they became infected, but thanks to improvements in the treatment of wound infection over the course of the war, the number of gangrene cases fell dramatically.

The Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) was responsible for providing medical care in the field. Stretcher bearers were usually the first to reach a wounded soldier and to administer first aid, such as applying wound dressings. They worked in extremely dangerous conditions, often under fire. If the wounded man could not carry on fighting, the stretcher bearers took him to a Regimental Aid Post, staffed by a medical officer.

​​​​​​​Here, members of Field Ambulance units would provide initial care before the man was evacuated, if necessary, to a Casualty Clearing Station. This was a basic field hospital where, by 1916, most surgical procedures could be carried out. If the casualty required further treatment he would then be sent to a hospital well behind the lines or back in Britain.
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Deserters

Soldiers knew they were expected to fight to the death "for king and country". But not even the most experienced servicemen could be prepared for the horrors that unfolded before them. For some it was unbearable and they deserted: ran away. To the British Army, these men were regarded as "cowards". Many of those who fled but were later caught faced a court martial (military court) and death by firing squad.

British and Commonwealth military command executed 306 of its own men for alleged cowardice or desertion during World War I. The executions served two purposes: to punish the deserters and to stop others doing the same.
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Private Thomas Highgate was the first to receive such military justice. Having survived the slaughter of some 7800 British troops at the Battle of Mons, he fled and hid in a barn. Every one of his comrades from the Royal West Kents had been killed, injured or captured. In September 1914, just 35 days into the war, Private Highgate was executed at the age of 19.